{"id":6901,"date":"2026-05-06T12:52:17","date_gmt":"2026-05-06T09:52:17","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/sterasoft.com\/nomeatnoproblem\/?p=6901"},"modified":"2026-05-06T12:52:17","modified_gmt":"2026-05-06T09:52:17","slug":"differences-in-macronutrient-metabolism-in-men-and-women","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/sterasoft.com\/nomeatnoproblem\/en\/differences-in-macronutrient-metabolism-in-men-and-women\/","title":{"rendered":"Differences in macronutrient metabolism in men and women"},"content":{"rendered":"[vc_row type=&#8220;in_container&#8220; full_screen_row_position=&#8220;middle&#8220; column_margin=&#8220;default&#8220; column_direction=&#8220;default&#8220; column_direction_tablet=&#8220;default&#8220; column_direction_phone=&#8220;default&#8220; scene_position=&#8220;center&#8220; text_color=&#8220;dark&#8220; text_align=&#8220;left&#8220; row_border_radius=&#8220;none&#8220; row_border_radius_applies=&#8220;bg&#8220; row_position_desktop=&#8220;default&#8220; row_position_tablet=&#8220;inherit&#8220; row_position_phone=&#8220;inherit&#8220; overflow=&#8220;visible&#8220; overlay_strength=&#8220;0.3&#8243; gradient_direction=&#8220;left_to_right&#8220; shape_divider_position=&#8220;bottom&#8220; bg_image_animation=&#8220;none&#8220;][vc_column column_padding=&#8220;no-extra-padding&#8220; column_padding_tablet=&#8220;inherit&#8220; column_padding_phone=&#8220;inherit&#8220; column_padding_position=&#8220;all&#8220; flex_gap_desktop=&#8220;10px&#8220; column_element_direction_desktop=&#8220;default&#8220; column_element_spacing=&#8220;default&#8220; desktop_text_alignment=&#8220;default&#8220; tablet_text_alignment=&#8220;default&#8220; phone_text_alignment=&#8220;default&#8220; background_color_opacity=&#8220;1&#8243; background_hover_color_opacity=&#8220;1&#8243; column_backdrop_filter=&#8220;none&#8220; column_shadow=&#8220;none&#8220; column_border_radius=&#8220;none&#8220; column_link_target=&#8220;_self&#8220; column_position=&#8220;default&#8220; gradient_direction=&#8220;left_to_right&#8220; overlay_strength=&#8220;0.3&#8243; width=&#8220;1\/1&#8243; tablet_width_inherit=&#8220;default&#8220; animation_type=&#8220;default&#8220; bg_image_animation=&#8220;none&#8220; border_type=&#8220;simple&#8220; column_border_width=&#8220;none&#8220; column_border_style=&#8220;solid&#8220;][vc_column_text css=&#8220;&#8220; text_direction=&#8220;default&#8220;]\n<div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_82_2 ez-toc-wrap-left counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-custom ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title\" style=\"cursor:inherit\">Contents<\/p>\n<span class=\"ez-toc-title-toggle\"><a href=\"#\" class=\"ez-toc-pull-right ez-toc-btn ez-toc-btn-xs ez-toc-btn-default ez-toc-toggle\" aria-label=\"Toggle Table of Content\"><span class=\"ez-toc-js-icon-con\"><span class=\"\"><span class=\"eztoc-hide\" style=\"display:none;\">Toggle<\/span><span class=\"ez-toc-icon-toggle-span\"><svg style=\"fill: #000000;color:#000000\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" class=\"list-377408\" width=\"20px\" height=\"20px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" fill=\"none\"><path d=\"M6 6H4v2h2V6zm14 0H8v2h12V6zM4 11h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2zM4 16h2v2H4v-2zm16 0H8v2h12v-2z\" fill=\"currentColor\"><\/path><\/svg><svg style=\"fill: #000000;color:#000000\" class=\"arrow-unsorted-368013\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\" width=\"10px\" height=\"10px\" viewBox=\"0 0 24 24\" version=\"1.2\" baseProfile=\"tiny\"><path d=\"M18.2 9.3l-6.2-6.3-6.2 6.3c-.2.2-.3.4-.3.7s.1.5.3.7c.2.2.4.3.7.3h11c.3 0 .5-.1.7-.3.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7zM5.8 14.7l6.2 6.3 6.2-6.3c.2-.2.3-.5.3-.7s-.1-.5-.3-.7c-.2-.2-.4-.3-.7-.3h-11c-.3 0-.5.1-.7.3-.2.2-.3.5-.3.7s.1.5.3.7z\"\/><\/svg><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1 ' ><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/sterasoft.com\/nomeatnoproblem\/en\/differences-in-macronutrient-metabolism-in-men-and-women\/#If_you_do_not_feel_like_reading_the_whole_article_remember_this\" >If you do not feel like reading the whole article, remember this:<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/sterasoft.com\/nomeatnoproblem\/en\/differences-in-macronutrient-metabolism-in-men-and-women\/#Main_differences_in_carbohydrate_metabolism_between_men_and_women\" >Main differences in carbohydrate metabolism between men and women.<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/sterasoft.com\/nomeatnoproblem\/en\/differences-in-macronutrient-metabolism-in-men-and-women\/#Main_differences_in_fat_metabolism_between_men_and_women\" >Main differences in fat metabolism between men and women.<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/sterasoft.com\/nomeatnoproblem\/en\/differences-in-macronutrient-metabolism-in-men-and-women\/#Practical_consequences_%E2%80%94_what_actually_happens\" >Practical consequences \u2014 what actually happens<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-4'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/sterasoft.com\/nomeatnoproblem\/en\/differences-in-macronutrient-metabolism-in-men-and-women\/#These_physiological_differences_affect\" >These physiological differences affect:<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n<h4><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"If_you_do_not_feel_like_reading_the_whole_article_remember_this\"><\/span><strong>If you do not feel like reading the whole article, remember this:<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n[\/vc_column_text][vc_row_inner column_margin=&#8220;default&#8220; column_direction=&#8220;default&#8220; column_direction_tablet=&#8220;default&#8220; column_direction_phone=&#8220;default&#8220; text_align=&#8220;left&#8220; row_position=&#8220;default&#8220; row_position_tablet=&#8220;inherit&#8220; row_position_phone=&#8220;inherit&#8220; overflow=&#8220;visible&#8220; pointer_events=&#8220;all&#8220;][vc_column_inner column_padding=&#8220;no-extra-padding&#8220; column_padding_tablet=&#8220;inherit&#8220; column_padding_phone=&#8220;inherit&#8220; column_padding_position=&#8220;all&#8220; flex_gap_desktop=&#8220;10px&#8220; column_element_direction_desktop=&#8220;default&#8220; column_element_spacing=&#8220;default&#8220; desktop_text_alignment=&#8220;default&#8220; tablet_text_alignment=&#8220;default&#8220; phone_text_alignment=&#8220;default&#8220; background_color_opacity=&#8220;1&#8243; background_hover_color_opacity=&#8220;1&#8243; column_backdrop_filter=&#8220;none&#8220; column_shadow=&#8220;none&#8220; column_border_radius=&#8220;none&#8220; column_link_target=&#8220;_self&#8220; overflow=&#8220;visible&#8220; gradient_direction=&#8220;left_to_right&#8220; overlay_strength=&#8220;0.3&#8243; width=&#8220;1\/2&#8243; tablet_width_inherit=&#8220;default&#8220; animation_type=&#8220;default&#8220; bg_image_animation=&#8220;none&#8220; border_type=&#8220;simple&#8220; column_border_width=&#8220;none&#8220; column_border_style=&#8220;solid&#8220;][vc_column_text css=&#8220;&#8220; text_direction=&#8220;default&#8220;]\n<ul>\n<li data-section-id=\"l30ueh\" data-start=\"27\" data-end=\"69\">Men and women metabolize differently<\/li>\n<li data-section-id=\"1obh4mi\" data-start=\"70\" data-end=\"116\">Women use more fat for energy<\/li>\n<li data-section-id=\"1t2ej4t\" data-start=\"117\" data-end=\"159\">Men rely more on carbohydrates<\/li>\n<li data-section-id=\"1m53aml\" data-start=\"160\" data-end=\"199\">Estrogen changes fuel selection<\/li>\n<li data-section-id=\"bb7gv4\" data-start=\"200\" data-end=\"244\">The menstrual cycle affects metabolism<\/li>\n<li data-section-id=\"6rtku8\" data-start=\"245\" data-end=\"297\">Men have higher absolute protein needs<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n[\/vc_column_text][\/vc_column_inner][vc_column_inner column_padding=&#8220;no-extra-padding&#8220; column_padding_tablet=&#8220;inherit&#8220; column_padding_phone=&#8220;inherit&#8220; column_padding_position=&#8220;all&#8220; top_margin_phone=&#8220;-50&#8243; column_element_direction_desktop=&#8220;default&#8220; column_element_spacing=&#8220;default&#8220; desktop_text_alignment=&#8220;default&#8220; tablet_text_alignment=&#8220;default&#8220; phone_text_alignment=&#8220;default&#8220; background_color_opacity=&#8220;1&#8243; background_hover_color_opacity=&#8220;1&#8243; column_backdrop_filter=&#8220;none&#8220; column_shadow=&#8220;none&#8220; column_border_radius=&#8220;none&#8220; column_link_target=&#8220;_self&#8220; overflow=&#8220;visible&#8220; gradient_direction=&#8220;left_to_right&#8220; overlay_strength=&#8220;0.3&#8243; width=&#8220;1\/2&#8243; tablet_width_inherit=&#8220;default&#8220; animation_type=&#8220;default&#8220; bg_image_animation=&#8220;none&#8220; border_type=&#8220;simple&#8220; column_border_width=&#8220;none&#8220; column_border_style=&#8220;solid&#8220; column_padding_type=&#8220;default&#8220; content_layout=&#8220;default&#8220; gradient_type=&#8220;default&#8220;][vc_column_text css=&#8220;&#8220; text_direction=&#8220;default&#8220;]\n<ul>\n<li data-section-id=\"iitzsh\" data-start=\"298\" data-end=\"345\">Women recover their muscles more efficiently<\/li>\n<li data-section-id=\"1ix2f7n\" data-start=\"346\" data-end=\"389\">Omega-3 is utilized better by women<\/li>\n<li data-section-id=\"lxkpw9\" data-start=\"390\" data-end=\"431\">Men more often need DHA\/EPA<\/li>\n<li data-section-id=\"200bzm\" data-start=\"432\" data-end=\"482\">Nutrition and training require a different approach<\/li>\n<li data-section-id=\"1ob26qq\" data-start=\"483\" data-end=\"525\">Identical recommendations do not work identically<\/li>\n<li data-section-id=\"1jnuwc9\" data-start=\"526\" data-end=\"569\">Sex matters in sports nutrition<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n[\/vc_column_text][\/vc_column_inner][\/vc_row_inner][vc_column_text css=&#8220;&#8220; text_direction=&#8220;default&#8220;]Very often in medicine, nutrition, and science in general, men and women are treated as if they were the same, which, however politically correct it may be nowadays, actually works against women. This is because until about 30 years ago, studies on nutrition, sport, health, and so on were conducted mainly on men.<\/p>\n<p>It was believed that there were no major differences between the two sexes, and that whatever worked for the male half of the population would also work for the female half.<\/p>\n<p>This, however, is far from the truth, because our bodies are very different in terms of bone structure, hormones, and hormonal cycles. This makes them behave in specific ways and react differently to the same environmental stimuli, such as food, physical activity, stress, and others.<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Main_differences_in_carbohydrate_metabolism_between_men_and_women\"><\/span><strong>Main differences in carbohydrate metabolism between men and women.<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n[\/vc_column_text][\/vc_column][\/vc_row][vc_row type=&#8220;in_container&#8220; full_screen_row_position=&#8220;middle&#8220; column_margin=&#8220;default&#8220; column_direction=&#8220;default&#8220; column_direction_tablet=&#8220;default&#8220; column_direction_phone=&#8220;default&#8220; scene_position=&#8220;center&#8220; text_color=&#8220;dark&#8220; text_align=&#8220;left&#8220; row_border_radius=&#8220;none&#8220; row_border_radius_applies=&#8220;bg&#8220; row_position_desktop=&#8220;default&#8220; row_position_tablet=&#8220;inherit&#8220; row_position_phone=&#8220;inherit&#8220; overflow=&#8220;visible&#8220; overlay_strength=&#8220;0.3&#8243; gradient_direction=&#8220;left_to_right&#8220; shape_divider_position=&#8220;bottom&#8220; bg_image_animation=&#8220;none&#8220;][vc_column column_padding=&#8220;no-extra-padding&#8220; column_padding_tablet=&#8220;inherit&#8220; column_padding_phone=&#8220;inherit&#8220; column_padding_position=&#8220;all&#8220; flex_gap_desktop=&#8220;10px&#8220; column_element_direction_desktop=&#8220;default&#8220; column_element_spacing=&#8220;default&#8220; desktop_text_alignment=&#8220;default&#8220; tablet_text_alignment=&#8220;default&#8220; phone_text_alignment=&#8220;default&#8220; background_color_opacity=&#8220;1&#8243; background_hover_color_opacity=&#8220;1&#8243; column_backdrop_filter=&#8220;none&#8220; column_shadow=&#8220;none&#8220; column_border_radius=&#8220;none&#8220; column_link_target=&#8220;_self&#8220; column_position=&#8220;default&#8220; gradient_direction=&#8220;left_to_right&#8220; overlay_strength=&#8220;0.3&#8243; width=&#8220;1\/1&#8243; tablet_width_inherit=&#8220;default&#8220; animation_type=&#8220;default&#8220; bg_image_animation=&#8220;none&#8220; border_type=&#8220;simple&#8220; column_border_width=&#8220;none&#8220; column_border_style=&#8220;solid&#8220;][vc_column_text css=&#8220;&#8220; text_direction=&#8220;default&#8220;]<strong> Baseline carbohydrate use<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>In many studies, including endurance studies and moderate-intensity exercise research:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Women usually use fewer carbohydrates and more fat at the same relative intensity as men.<\/li>\n<li>Women store muscle glycogen more efficiently.<\/li>\n<li>Men show higher levels of muscle glycogenolysis (breakdown of stored carbohydrates).<\/li>\n<li>This has been consistently demonstrated in physiological reviews and articles on exercise metabolism.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Hormonal influence (estrogen)<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Estrogen is the main driver of sex differences in carbohydrate metabolism:<\/li>\n<li>Estrogen reduces carbohydrate oxidation and, as a result, shifts fuel preference toward fat.<\/li>\n<li>It improves glycogen storage during endurance exercise, which supports endurance in women<\/li>\n<li>It leads to lower dependence on blood glucose and lower glycogen depletion compared with men.<\/li>\n<li>Because men have much lower estrogen levels, they rely more on carbohydrate oxidation during the same effort.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Influence of the menstrual cycle on carbohydrate metabolism<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>The menstrual cycle changes nutrient utilization:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Follicular phase (low estrogen\/progesterone):\n<ul>\n<li>Carbohydrate oxidation is higher<\/li>\n<li>Metabolism is more similar to that of men<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Luteal phase (high estrogen\/progesterone):\n<ul>\n<li>Carbohydrate oxidation decreases<\/li>\n<li>Fat oxidation increases<\/li>\n<li>Appetite and energy intake often increase<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Practical consequences \u2014 what actually happens<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Women may not need such aggressive carbohydrate loading as men for similar endurance.<\/li>\n<li>Men benefit more from pre-workout carbohydrate fueling (for example, glycogen loading). In other words, if a man and a woman consume the same amount of carbohydrates, for example honey before training, the man will gain greater benefit from it in the form of energy<\/li>\n<li>Women\u2019s carbohydrate needs vary across the menstrual cycle, being slightly higher in the follicular phase.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<h4><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Main_differences_in_fat_metabolism_between_men_and_women\"><\/span><strong>Main differences in fat metabolism between men and women.<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n[\/vc_column_text][\/vc_column][\/vc_row][vc_row type=&#8220;in_container&#8220; full_screen_row_position=&#8220;middle&#8220; column_margin=&#8220;default&#8220; column_direction=&#8220;default&#8220; column_direction_tablet=&#8220;default&#8220; column_direction_phone=&#8220;default&#8220; scene_position=&#8220;center&#8220; text_color=&#8220;dark&#8220; text_align=&#8220;left&#8220; row_border_radius=&#8220;none&#8220; row_border_radius_applies=&#8220;bg&#8220; row_position_desktop=&#8220;default&#8220; row_position_tablet=&#8220;inherit&#8220; row_position_phone=&#8220;inherit&#8220; overflow=&#8220;visible&#8220; overlay_strength=&#8220;0.3&#8243; gradient_direction=&#8220;left_to_right&#8220; shape_divider_position=&#8220;bottom&#8220; bg_image_animation=&#8220;none&#8220;][vc_column column_padding=&#8220;no-extra-padding&#8220; column_padding_tablet=&#8220;inherit&#8220; column_padding_phone=&#8220;inherit&#8220; column_padding_position=&#8220;all&#8220; flex_gap_desktop=&#8220;10px&#8220; column_element_direction_desktop=&#8220;default&#8220; column_element_spacing=&#8220;default&#8220; desktop_text_alignment=&#8220;default&#8220; tablet_text_alignment=&#8220;default&#8220; phone_text_alignment=&#8220;default&#8220; background_color_opacity=&#8220;1&#8243; background_hover_color_opacity=&#8220;1&#8243; column_backdrop_filter=&#8220;none&#8220; column_shadow=&#8220;none&#8220; column_border_radius=&#8220;none&#8220; column_link_target=&#8220;_self&#8220; column_position=&#8220;default&#8220; gradient_direction=&#8220;left_to_right&#8220; overlay_strength=&#8220;0.3&#8243; width=&#8220;1\/2&#8243; tablet_width_inherit=&#8220;default&#8220; animation_type=&#8220;default&#8220; bg_image_animation=&#8220;none&#8220; border_type=&#8220;simple&#8220; column_border_width=&#8220;none&#8220; column_border_style=&#8220;solid&#8220;][vc_column_text css=&#8220;&#8220; text_direction=&#8220;default&#8220;]<strong>Baseline fat oxidation<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Women oxidize more fat than men at rest and during exercise.<\/p>\n<p>These are some of the most common findings in metabolic research:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Women show higher whole-body lipolysis (breakdown of stored fat).<\/li>\n<li>The use of intramuscular triglycerides (IMTG) during exercise is higher in women.<\/li>\n<li>Women rely less on carbohydrates and more on fat to meet their energy needs.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Hormonal influence (estrogen again)<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Estrogen upregulates the enzymes involved in fat oxidation and shifts the substrate mix away from carbohydrates.<\/p>\n<p>Main functions in fat metabolism:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Improves fat mobilization<\/li>\n<li>Promotes the use of IMTG<\/li>\n<li>Increases the availability of free fatty acids<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>This is why women who train for endurance have more intramuscular triglyceride stores and use them more efficiently.[\/vc_column_text][\/vc_column][vc_column column_padding=&#8220;no-extra-padding&#8220; column_padding_tablet=&#8220;inherit&#8220; column_padding_phone=&#8220;inherit&#8220; column_padding_position=&#8220;all&#8220; flex_gap_desktop=&#8220;10px&#8220; column_element_direction_desktop=&#8220;default&#8220; column_element_spacing=&#8220;default&#8220; desktop_text_alignment=&#8220;default&#8220; tablet_text_alignment=&#8220;default&#8220; phone_text_alignment=&#8220;default&#8220; background_color_opacity=&#8220;1&#8243; background_hover_color_opacity=&#8220;1&#8243; column_backdrop_filter=&#8220;none&#8220; column_shadow=&#8220;none&#8220; column_border_radius=&#8220;none&#8220; column_link_target=&#8220;_self&#8220; column_position=&#8220;default&#8220; gradient_direction=&#8220;left_to_right&#8220; overlay_strength=&#8220;0.3&#8243; width=&#8220;1\/2&#8243; tablet_width_inherit=&#8220;default&#8220; animation_type=&#8220;default&#8220; bg_image_animation=&#8220;none&#8220; border_type=&#8220;simple&#8220; column_border_width=&#8220;none&#8220; column_border_style=&#8220;solid&#8220;][image_with_animation image_url=&#8220;5979&#8243; image_size=&#8220;full&#8220; max_width=&#8220;100%&#8220; max_width_mobile=&#8220;default&#8220; animation_type=&#8220;entrance&#8220; animation=&#8220;None&#8220; animation_movement_type=&#8220;transform_y&#8220; hover_animation=&#8220;none&#8220; alignment=&#8220;center&#8220; border_radius=&#8220;none&#8220; box_shadow=&#8220;none&#8220; image_loading=&#8220;default&#8220;][\/vc_column][\/vc_row][vc_row type=&#8220;in_container&#8220; full_screen_row_position=&#8220;middle&#8220; column_margin=&#8220;default&#8220; column_direction=&#8220;default&#8220; column_direction_tablet=&#8220;default&#8220; column_direction_phone=&#8220;default&#8220; scene_position=&#8220;center&#8220; text_color=&#8220;dark&#8220; text_align=&#8220;left&#8220; row_border_radius=&#8220;none&#8220; row_border_radius_applies=&#8220;bg&#8220; row_position_desktop=&#8220;default&#8220; row_position_tablet=&#8220;inherit&#8220; row_position_phone=&#8220;inherit&#8220; overflow=&#8220;visible&#8220; overlay_strength=&#8220;0.3&#8243; gradient_direction=&#8220;left_to_right&#8220; shape_divider_position=&#8220;bottom&#8220; bg_image_animation=&#8220;none&#8220;][vc_column column_padding=&#8220;no-extra-padding&#8220; column_padding_tablet=&#8220;inherit&#8220; column_padding_phone=&#8220;inherit&#8220; column_padding_position=&#8220;all&#8220; flex_gap_desktop=&#8220;10px&#8220; column_element_direction_desktop=&#8220;default&#8220; column_element_spacing=&#8220;default&#8220; desktop_text_alignment=&#8220;default&#8220; tablet_text_alignment=&#8220;default&#8220; phone_text_alignment=&#8220;default&#8220; background_color_opacity=&#8220;1&#8243; background_hover_color_opacity=&#8220;1&#8243; column_backdrop_filter=&#8220;none&#8220; column_shadow=&#8220;none&#8220; column_border_radius=&#8220;none&#8220; column_link_target=&#8220;_self&#8220; column_position=&#8220;default&#8220; gradient_direction=&#8220;left_to_right&#8220; overlay_strength=&#8220;0.3&#8243; width=&#8220;1\/1&#8243; tablet_width_inherit=&#8220;default&#8220; animation_type=&#8220;default&#8220; bg_image_animation=&#8220;none&#8220; border_type=&#8220;simple&#8220; column_border_width=&#8220;none&#8220; column_border_style=&#8220;solid&#8220;][vc_column_text css=&#8220;&#8220; text_direction=&#8220;default&#8220;]<strong>Influence of the menstrual cycle on fat metabolism<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>During the luteal phase, elevated estrogen and progesterone levels lead to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Greater reliance on fat metabolism<\/li>\n<li>Reduced use of carbohydrates<\/li>\n<li>Increased availability of plasma lipids<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><strong>Sex differences in omega-3 fatty acid metabolism<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Women convert ALA \u2192 EPA\/DHA more efficiently than men<\/li>\n<li>Estrogen upregulates conversion enzymes<\/li>\n<li>Women have significantly higher DHA status than men on similar plant-based diets<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>This has major consequences for vegan\/vegetarian nutrition:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Men may need algae-derived DHA\/EPA supplements<\/li>\n<li>Many premenopausal women maintain DHA levels more easily from ALA sources (flaxseed, chia, walnuts), although this is somewhat individual<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n[\/vc_column_text][vc_column_text css=&#8220;&#8220; text_direction=&#8220;default&#8220;]<strong>What are the main differences in protein metabolism between men and women.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><strong>Baseline protein use<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Men and women show similar protein oxidation per kg in controlled studies, but with the small difference that:<\/p>\n<p>Men oxidize more protein in absolute grams\/day<\/p>\n<p><strong>WHY IS THIS THE CASE?<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Higher total lean muscle mass<\/li>\n<li>Higher resting energy expenditure<\/li>\n<li>Higher absolute intake<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Protein recommendations (per kg of body weight) are the same for both sexes, but total grams\/day are higher in men because of body size.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Differences in muscle protein synthesis (MPS)<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Women and men have a similar relative increase in muscle protein synthesis after training.<\/li>\n<li>Women generally have better protection against muscle damage and recover faster from muscle injuries.<\/li>\n<li>Men tend to have greater results because of higher baseline muscle mass and testosterone levels.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n[\/vc_column_text][image_with_animation image_url=&#8220;5982&#8243; image_size=&#8220;full&#8220; max_width=&#8220;100%&#8220; max_width_mobile=&#8220;default&#8220; animation_type=&#8220;entrance&#8220; animation=&#8220;None&#8220; animation_movement_type=&#8220;transform_y&#8220; hover_animation=&#8220;none&#8220; alignment=&#8220;center&#8220; border_radius=&#8220;none&#8220; box_shadow=&#8220;none&#8220; image_loading=&#8220;default&#8220;][vc_column_text css=&#8220;&#8220; text_direction=&#8220;default&#8220;]<strong>Effects of protein on the menstrual cycle<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Limited but interesting evidence:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Luteal phase: higher protein oxidation and higher energy expenditure<\/li>\n<li>Many female athletes perform better with a slightly higher protein intake during this phase<\/li>\n<li>Appetite often increases, so it is easier to meet protein needs<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h4><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Practical_consequences_%E2%80%94_what_actually_happens\"><\/span><strong>Practical consequences \u2014 what actually happens<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n<p>Women may need more attention during dieting phases; they are more vulnerable to low energy availability, which reduces the efficiency of protein metabolism.<\/p>\n<p>With plant-based diets, both sexes would benefit from:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Soy protein<\/li>\n<li>Combining legumes and grains<\/li>\n<li>Using protein isolates for athletes or people on a diet<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>To conclude, we can summarize what the main sex differences consist of and what these differences mean<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<div class=\"wptb-container-legacy\" data-table-id=\"6903\">\n    <table class=\"wptb-preview-table wptb-element-main-table_setting-6903\" style=\"border-spacing: 3px 3px; border-collapse: collapse !important; min-width: 100%; border: 1px solid rgb(0, 0, 0); \" data-border-spacing-columns=\"3\" data-border-spacing-rows=\"3\" data-reconstraction=\"1\" data-wptb-table-directives=\"eyJpbm5lckJvcmRlcnMiOnsiYWN0aXZlIjoiYWxsIiwiYm9yZGVyV2lkdGgiOjEsImJvcmRlclJhZGl1c2VzIjp7ImFsbCI6MCwicm93IjowLCJjb2x1bW4iOjB9fX0=\" data-wptb-responsive-directives=\"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\" data-wptb-cells-width-auto-count=\"3\" data-wptb-extra-styles=\"\" data-wptb-pro-pagination-top-row-header=\"false\" data-wptb-rows-per-page=\"10\" data-wptb-pro-search-top-row-header=\"false\" data-wptb-searchbar-position=\"left\" role=\"table\" data-table-columns=\"3\" data-wptb-table-alignment=\"center\" data-wptb-td-width-auto=\"120\" data-wptb-table-tds-sum-max-width=\"426\" data-wptb-even-row-background-color=\"#ffffff\" data-wptb-odd-row-background-color=\"#f0f0f0\" data-v2-props=\"eyJ1c2VUaEZvckZpcnN0Um93IjpmYWxzZSwiY29sdW1uc1Byb3BzIjp7fSwicm93c1Byb3BzIjp7fX0=\" ><tbody data-global-font-size=\"15\" ><tr  class=\"wptb-row \" style=\"background-color: #f0f0f0; \"><td class=\"wptb-cell \" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\" style=\"padding: 10px; border-width: 1px; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: solid; border-radius: 0px; \" data-y-index=\"0\" data-x-index=\"0\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-width=\"true\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-height=\"true\" data-wptb-cell-vertical-alignment=\"center\" ><div class=\"wptb-text-container wptb-ph-element wptb-element-text-597\" style=\"font-size: 15px; \"><div style=\"position: relative;\"><p style=\"text-align:center;\"><strong>Metabolism type<\/strong><\/p><\/div><\/div><\/td><td class=\"wptb-cell \" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\" style=\"padding: 10px; border-width: 1px; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: solid; border-radius: 0px; \" data-y-index=\"0\" data-x-index=\"1\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-width=\"true\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-height=\"true\" data-wptb-cell-vertical-alignment=\"center\" ><div class=\"wptb-text-container wptb-ph-element wptb-element-text-598\" style=\"font-size: 15px; \"><div style=\"position: relative;\"><p><strong>Men<\/strong><\/p><\/div><\/div><\/td><td class=\"wptb-cell \" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\" style=\"padding: 10px; border-width: 1px; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: solid; border-radius: 0px; \" data-y-index=\"0\" data-x-index=\"2\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-width=\"true\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-height=\"true\" data-wptb-cell-vertical-alignment=\"center\" ><div class=\"wptb-text-container wptb-ph-element wptb-element-text-599\" style=\"font-size: 15px; \"><div style=\"position: relative;\"><p><strong>Women<\/strong><\/p><\/div><\/div><\/td><\/tr><tr  class=\"wptb-row \" style=\"background-color: #ffffff; \"><td class=\"wptb-cell \" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\" style=\"padding: 10px; border-width: 1px; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: solid; border-radius: 0px; \" data-y-index=\"1\" data-x-index=\"0\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-width=\"true\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-height=\"true\" data-wptb-cell-vertical-alignment=\"center\" ><div class=\"wptb-text-container wptb-ph-element wptb-element-text-600\" style=\"font-size: 15px; \"><div style=\"position: relative;\"><p><strong>Carbohydrates<\/strong><\/p><\/div><\/div><\/td><td class=\"wptb-cell \" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\" style=\"padding: 10px; border-width: 1px; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: solid; border-radius: 0px; \" data-y-index=\"1\" data-x-index=\"1\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-width=\"true\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-height=\"true\" data-wptb-cell-vertical-alignment=\"center\" ><div class=\"wptb-text-container wptb-ph-element wptb-element-text-601\" style=\"font-size: 15px; \"><div style=\"position: relative;\"><p>Higher carbohydrate oxidation, higher glycogen utilization<\/p><\/div><\/div><\/td><td class=\"wptb-cell \" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\" style=\"padding: 10px; border-width: 1px; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: solid; border-radius: 0px; \" data-y-index=\"1\" data-x-index=\"2\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-width=\"true\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-height=\"true\" data-wptb-cell-vertical-alignment=\"center\" ><div class=\"wptb-text-container wptb-ph-element wptb-element-text-602\" style=\"font-size: 15px; \"><div style=\"position: relative;\"><p>Lower carbohydrate oxidation, more glycogen stores<\/p><\/div><\/div><\/td><\/tr><tr  class=\"wptb-row \" style=\"background-color: #f0f0f0; \"><td class=\"wptb-cell \" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\" style=\"padding: 10px; border-width: 1px; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: solid; border-radius: 0px; \" data-y-index=\"2\" data-x-index=\"0\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-width=\"true\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-height=\"true\" data-wptb-cell-vertical-alignment=\"center\" ><div class=\"wptb-text-container wptb-ph-element wptb-element-text-603\" style=\"font-size: 15px; \"><div style=\"position: relative;\"><p><strong>Fats<\/strong><\/p><\/div><\/div><\/td><td class=\"wptb-cell \" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\" style=\"padding: 10px; border-width: 1px; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: solid; border-radius: 0px; \" data-y-index=\"2\" data-x-index=\"1\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-width=\"true\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-height=\"true\" data-wptb-cell-vertical-alignment=\"center\" ><div class=\"wptb-text-container wptb-ph-element wptb-element-text-604\" style=\"font-size: 15px; \"><div style=\"position: relative;\"><p>Lower fat oxidation<\/p><\/div><\/div><\/td><td class=\"wptb-cell \" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\" style=\"padding: 10px; border-width: 1px; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: solid; border-radius: 0px; \" data-y-index=\"2\" data-x-index=\"2\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-width=\"true\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-height=\"true\" data-wptb-cell-vertical-alignment=\"center\" ><div class=\"wptb-text-container wptb-ph-element wptb-element-text-605\" style=\"font-size: 15px; \"><div style=\"position: relative;\"><p>Higher fat oxidation (especially during endurance)<\/p><\/div><\/div><\/td><\/tr><tr  class=\"wptb-row \" style=\"background-color: #ffffff; \"><td class=\"wptb-cell \" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\" style=\"padding: 10px; border-width: 1px; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: solid; border-radius: 0px; \" data-y-index=\"3\" data-x-index=\"0\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-width=\"true\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-height=\"true\" data-wptb-cell-vertical-alignment=\"center\" ><div class=\"wptb-text-container wptb-ph-element wptb-element-text-606\" style=\"font-size: 15px; \"><div style=\"position: relative;\"><p><strong>Proteins<\/strong><\/p><\/div><\/div><\/td><td class=\"wptb-cell \" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\" style=\"padding: 10px; border-width: 1px; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: solid; border-radius: 0px; \" data-y-index=\"3\" data-x-index=\"1\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-width=\"true\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-height=\"true\" data-wptb-cell-vertical-alignment=\"center\" ><div class=\"wptb-text-container wptb-ph-element wptb-element-text-607\" style=\"font-size: 15px; \"><div style=\"position: relative;\"><p>Higher absolute protein conversion<\/p><\/div><\/div><\/td><td class=\"wptb-cell \" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\" style=\"padding: 10px; border-width: 1px; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: solid; border-radius: 0px; \" data-y-index=\"3\" data-x-index=\"2\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-width=\"true\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-height=\"true\" data-wptb-cell-vertical-alignment=\"center\" ><div class=\"wptb-text-container wptb-ph-element wptb-element-text-608\" style=\"font-size: 15px; \"><div style=\"position: relative;\"><p>Similar conversion to kg weight; better protection from muscle damage<\/p><\/div><\/div><\/td><\/tr><tr  class=\"wptb-row \" style=\"background-color: #f0f0f0; \"><td class=\"wptb-cell \" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\" style=\"padding: 10px; border-width: 1px; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: solid; border-radius: 0px; \" data-y-index=\"4\" data-x-index=\"0\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-width=\"true\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-height=\"true\" data-wptb-cell-vertical-alignment=\"center\" ><div class=\"wptb-text-container wptb-ph-element wptb-element-text-609\" style=\"font-size: 15px; \"><div style=\"position: relative;\"><p><strong>Hormonal influence<\/strong><\/p><\/div><\/div><\/td><td class=\"wptb-cell \" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\" style=\"padding: 10px; border-width: 1px; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: solid; border-radius: 0px; \" data-y-index=\"4\" data-x-index=\"1\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-width=\"true\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-height=\"true\" data-wptb-cell-vertical-alignment=\"center\" ><div class=\"wptb-text-container wptb-ph-element wptb-element-text-610\" style=\"font-size: 15px; \"><div style=\"position: relative;\"><p>Testosterone \u2192 greater lean mass<\/p><\/div><\/div><\/td><td class=\"wptb-cell \" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\" style=\"padding: 10px; border-width: 1px; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: solid; border-radius: 0px; \" data-y-index=\"4\" data-x-index=\"2\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-width=\"true\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-height=\"true\" data-wptb-cell-vertical-alignment=\"center\" ><div class=\"wptb-text-container wptb-ph-element wptb-element-text-611\" style=\"font-size: 15px; \"><div style=\"position: relative;\"><p>Estrogen \u2192 higher fat oxidation, lower carbohydrate utilization<\/p><\/div><\/div><\/td><\/tr><tr  class=\"wptb-row \" style=\"background-color: #ffffff; \"><td class=\"wptb-cell \" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\" style=\"padding: 10px; border-width: 1px; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: solid; border-radius: 0px; \" data-y-index=\"5\" data-x-index=\"0\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-width=\"true\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-height=\"true\" data-wptb-cell-vertical-alignment=\"center\" ><div class=\"wptb-text-container wptb-ph-element wptb-element-text-612\" style=\"font-size: 15px; \"><div style=\"position: relative;\"><p><strong>Menstrual cycle<\/strong><\/p><\/div><\/div><\/td><td class=\"wptb-cell \" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\" style=\"padding: 10px; border-width: 1px; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: solid; border-radius: 0px; \" data-y-index=\"5\" data-x-index=\"1\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-width=\"true\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-height=\"true\" data-wptb-cell-vertical-alignment=\"center\" ><div class=\"wptb-text-container wptb-ph-element wptb-element-text-613\" style=\"font-size: 15px; \"><div style=\"position: relative;\"><p>They are sparing it<\/p><\/div><\/div><\/td><td class=\"wptb-cell \" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\" style=\"padding: 10px; border-width: 1px; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: solid; border-radius: 0px; \" data-y-index=\"5\" data-x-index=\"2\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-width=\"true\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-height=\"true\" data-wptb-cell-vertical-alignment=\"center\" ><div class=\"wptb-text-container wptb-ph-element wptb-element-text-614\" style=\"font-size: 15px; \"><div style=\"position: relative;\"><p>Luteal phase: \u2191 fat utilization, \u2193 carbohydrate utilization; Follicular: more carbohydrate utilization<\/p><\/div><\/div><\/td><\/tr><tr  class=\"wptb-row \" style=\"background-color: #f0f0f0; \"><td class=\"wptb-cell \" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\" style=\"padding: 10px; border-width: 1px; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: solid; border-radius: 0px; \" data-y-index=\"6\" data-x-index=\"0\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-width=\"true\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-height=\"true\" data-wptb-cell-vertical-alignment=\"center\" ><div class=\"wptb-text-container wptb-ph-element wptb-element-text-615\" style=\"font-size: 15px; \"><div style=\"position: relative;\"><p><strong>Omega-3 conversion<\/strong><\/p><\/div><\/div><\/td><td class=\"wptb-cell \" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\" style=\"padding: 10px; border-width: 1px; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: solid; border-radius: 0px; \" data-y-index=\"6\" data-x-index=\"1\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-width=\"true\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-height=\"true\" data-wptb-cell-vertical-alignment=\"center\" ><div class=\"wptb-text-container wptb-ph-element wptb-element-text-616\" style=\"font-size: 15px; \"><div style=\"position: relative;\"><p>Lower conversion of ALA \u2192 DHA\/EPA<\/p><\/div><\/div><\/td><td class=\"wptb-cell \" colspan=\"1\" rowspan=\"1\" style=\"padding: 10px; border-width: 1px; border-color: rgb(0, 0, 0); border-style: solid; border-radius: 0px; \" data-y-index=\"6\" data-x-index=\"2\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-width=\"true\" data-wptb-css-td-auto-height=\"true\" data-wptb-cell-vertical-alignment=\"center\" ><div class=\"wptb-text-container wptb-ph-element wptb-element-text-617\" style=\"font-size: 15px; \"><div style=\"position: relative;\"><p>Higher conversion (driven by estrogen)<\/p><\/div><\/div><\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n<\/div>\n[\/vc_column_text][vc_column_text css=&#8220;&#8220; text_direction=&#8220;default&#8220;]\n<h4><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"These_physiological_differences_affect\"><\/span><strong>These physiological differences affect:<\/strong><span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h4>\n<ul>\n<li>Training and sports nutrition<\/li>\n<li>Fat-loss strategies versus muscle-gain strategies<\/li>\n<li>Micronutrient vulnerability in vegans\/vegetarians<\/li>\n<li>Carbohydrate periodization<\/li>\n<li>Omega-3 needs<\/li>\n<li>Responses to fasting or low-carbohydrate diets<\/li>\n<li>Risk of low energy availability, which is higher in women<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><strong>Sources:<\/strong><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/journals\/public-health-nutrition\/article\/epicoxfordlifestyle-characteristics-and-nutrient-intakes-in-a-cohort-of-33-883-meateaters-and-31-546-non-meateaters-in-the-uk\/BF14D307B5A33B572CFB2A3050410974\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/journals\/public-health-nutrition\/article\/epicoxfordlifestyle-characteristics-and-nutrient-intakes-in-a-cohort-of-33-883-meateaters-and-31-546-non-meateaters-in-the-uk\/BF14D307B5A33B572CFB2A3050410974<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/articles\/PMC2129154\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/articles\/PMC2129154\/<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0002916522036735\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com\/science\/article\/pii\/S0002916522036735<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/journals.plos.org\/plosone\/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0148235\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/journals.plos.org\/plosone\/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0148235<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/articles\/PMC12174276\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/articles\/PMC12174276\/<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/journals.physiology.org\/doi\/full\/10.1152\/jappl.2001.90.2.447\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/journals.physiology.org\/doi\/full\/10.1152\/jappl.2001.90.2.447<\/a><br \/>\n<a href=\"https:\/\/pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/articles\/PMC1479724\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">https:\/\/pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/articles\/PMC1479724\/<\/a>[\/vc_column_text][\/vc_column][\/vc_row]\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>[vc_row type=&#8220;in_container&#8220; 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